Click here to close
Hello! We notice that you are using Internet Explorer, which is not supported by Xenbase and may cause the site to display incorrectly.
We suggest using a current version of Chrome,
FireFox, or Safari.
???displayArticle.abstract???
Morphogens are substances that establish a graded distribution and elicit distinct cellular responses in a dose-dependent manner. They function to provide individual cells within a field with positional information, which is interpreted to give rise to spatial patterns. Morphogens can consist of intracellular factors that set up a concentration gradient by diffusion in the cytoplasm. More commonly, morphogens comprise secreted proteins that form an extracellular gradient across a field of cells. Experimental studies and computational analyses have provided support for a number of diverse strategies by which extracellular morphogen gradients are formed. These include free diffusion in the extracellular space, restricted diffusion aided by interactions with heparan sulfate proteoglycans, transport on lipid-containing carriers or transport aided by soluble binding partners. More specialized modes of transport have also been postulated such as transcytosis, in which repeated rounds of secretion, endocytosis, and intracellular trafficking move morphogens through cells rather than around them, or cytonemes, which consist of filopodial extensions from signal-receiving cells that are hypothesized to reach out to morphogen-sending cells. Once the gradient has formed, cells must distinguish small differences in morphogen concentration and store this information even after the gradient has dissipated. This is often achieved by translating ligand concentration into a proportional increase in numbers of activated cell surface receptors that are internalized and continue to signal from endosomal compartments. Ultimately, this leads to activation of one or a few transcription factors that transduce this information into qualitatively distinct gene responses inside the nucleus.
Akiyama,
Dally regulates Dpp morphogen gradient formation by stabilizing Dpp on the cell surface.
2008, Pubmed
Akiyama,
Dally regulates Dpp morphogen gradient formation by stabilizing Dpp on the cell surface.
2008,
Pubmed
Ashe,
The interpretation of morphogen gradients.
2006,
Pubmed
Ball,
Forging patterns and making waves from biology to geology: a commentary on Turing (1952) 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis'.
2015,
Pubmed
Barkai,
Robust generation and decoding of morphogen gradients.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Bejsovec,
Signaling activities of the Drosophila wingless gene are separately mutable and appear to be transduced at the cell surface.
1995,
Pubmed
Belenkaya,
Drosophila Dpp morphogen movement is independent of dynamin-mediated endocytosis but regulated by the glypican members of heparan sulfate proteoglycans.
2004,
Pubmed
Bénazet,
Vertebrate limb development: moving from classical morphogen gradients to an integrated 4-dimensional patterning system.
2009,
Pubmed
Bourillot,
A changing morphogen gradient is interpreted by continuous transduction flow.
2002,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Cadigan,
Wingless repression of Drosophila frizzled 2 expression shapes the Wingless morphogen gradient in the wing.
1998,
Pubmed
Callejo,
Patched, the receptor of Hedgehog, is a lipoprotein receptor.
2008,
Pubmed
Capurro,
Glypican-3 inhibits Hedgehog signaling during development by competing with patched for Hedgehog binding.
2008,
Pubmed
Chen,
Palmitoylation is required for the production of a soluble multimeric Hedgehog protein complex and long-range signaling in vertebrates.
2004,
Pubmed
Constam,
Running the gauntlet: an overview of the modalities of travel employed by the putative morphogen Nodal.
2009,
Pubmed
De Robertis,
A common plan for dorsoventral patterning in Bilateria.
1996,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Driever,
Determination of spatial domains of zygotic gene expression in the Drosophila embryo by the affinity of binding sites for the bicoid morphogen.
1989,
Pubmed
Driever,
The bicoid morphogen papers (II): account from Wolfgang Driever.
2004,
Pubmed
Driever,
A gradient of bicoid protein in Drosophila embryos.
1988,
Pubmed
Driever,
The bicoid protein determines position in the Drosophila embryo in a concentration-dependent manner.
1988,
Pubmed
Driever,
The bicoid protein is a positive regulator of hunchback transcription in the early Drosophila embryo.
1989,
Pubmed
Dubrulle,
fgf8 mRNA decay establishes a gradient that couples axial elongation to patterning in the vertebrate embryo.
2004,
Pubmed
Dyson,
The interpretation of position in a morphogen gradient as revealed by occupancy of activin receptors.
1998,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Eaton,
Multiple roles for lipids in the Hedgehog signalling pathway.
2008,
Pubmed
Entchev,
Gradient formation of the TGF-beta homolog Dpp.
2000,
Pubmed
Ephrussi,
Seeing is believing: the bicoid morphogen gradient matures.
2004,
Pubmed
Eugster,
Lipoprotein-heparan sulfate interactions in the Hh pathway.
2007,
Pubmed
Feng,
Synergistic and antagonistic roles of the Sonic hedgehog N- and C-terminal lipids.
2004,
Pubmed
Filmus,
Glypicans.
2008,
Pubmed
Fuerer,
A study on the interactions between heparan sulfate proteoglycans and Wnt proteins.
2010,
Pubmed
Gallet,
Hedgehog morphogen: from secretion to reception.
2011,
Pubmed
Gao,
Wnt signaling gradients establish planar cell polarity by inducing Vangl2 phosphorylation through Ror2.
2011,
Pubmed
Glise,
Shifted, the Drosophila ortholog of Wnt inhibitory factor-1, controls the distribution and movement of Hedgehog.
2005,
Pubmed
Gorfinkiel,
The Drosophila ortholog of the human Wnt inhibitor factor Shifted controls the diffusion of lipid-modified Hedgehog.
2005,
Pubmed
Greco,
Argosomes: a potential vehicle for the spread of morphogens through epithelia.
2001,
Pubmed
Gregor,
Diffusion and scaling during early embryonic pattern formation.
2005,
Pubmed
Gregor,
Probing the limits to positional information.
2007,
Pubmed
Gregor,
Stability and nuclear dynamics of the bicoid morphogen gradient.
2007,
Pubmed
Grimm,
Modelling the Bicoid gradient.
2010,
Pubmed
Hagemann,
Rab5-mediated endocytosis of activin is not required for gene activation or long-range signalling in Xenopus.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Han,
Drosophila glypicans Dally and Dally-like shape the extracellular Wingless morphogen gradient in the wing disc.
2005,
Pubmed
Han,
Drosophila glypicans control the cell-to-cell movement of Hedgehog by a dynamin-independent process.
2004,
Pubmed
Harfe,
Evidence for an expansion-based temporal Shh gradient in specifying vertebrate digit identities.
2004,
Pubmed
Holley,
The Xenopus dorsalizing factor noggin ventralizes Drosophila embryos by preventing DPP from activating its receptor.
1996,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Houchmandzadeh,
Establishment of developmental precision and proportions in the early Drosophila embryo.
2002,
Pubmed
Hsiung,
Dependence of Drosophila wing imaginal disc cytonemes on Decapentaplegic.
2005,
Pubmed
Hu,
Restriction of BMP4 activity domains in the developing neural tube of the mouse embryo.
2004,
Pubmed
Hyde,
Regulation of the early expression of the Xenopus nodal-related 1 gene, Xnr1.
2000,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Jiao,
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) modulate BMP2 osteogenic bioactivity in C2C12 cells.
2007,
Pubmed
Jullien,
Morphogen gradient interpretation by a regulated trafficking step during ligand-receptor transduction.
2005,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Kicheva,
Kinetics of morphogen gradient formation.
2007,
Pubmed
Kofron,
Mesoderm induction in Xenopus is a zygotic event regulated by maternal VegT via TGFbeta growth factors.
1999,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Kooyman,
In vivo transfer of GPI-linked complement restriction factors from erythrocytes to the endothelium.
1995,
Pubmed
Lander,
Do morphogen gradients arise by diffusion?
2002,
Pubmed
Lipshitz,
Follow the mRNA: a new model for Bicoid gradient formation.
2009,
Pubmed
Little,
The formation of the Bicoid morphogen gradient requires protein movement from anteriorly localized mRNA.
2011,
Pubmed
Lustig,
Expression cloning of a Xenopus T-related gene (Xombi) involved in mesodermal patterning and blastopore lip formation.
1996,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Marjoram,
Rapid differential transport of Nodal and Lefty on sulfated proteoglycan-rich extracellular matrix regulates left-right asymmetry in Xenopus.
2011,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
McDowell,
Formation of a functional morphogen gradient by a passive process in tissue from the early Xenopus embryo.
2001,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Nowak,
Interpretation of the FGF8 morphogen gradient is regulated by endocytic trafficking.
2011,
Pubmed
Nüsslein-Volhard,
The bicoid morphogen papers (I): account from CNV.
2004,
Pubmed
Ohkawara,
Action range of BMP is defined by its N-terminal basic amino acid core.
2002,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Panáková,
Lipoprotein particles are required for Hedgehog and Wingless signalling.
2005,
Pubmed
Plouhinec,
Systems biology of the self-regulating morphogenetic gradient of the Xenopus gastrula.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Port,
Wnt trafficking: new insights into Wnt maturation, secretion and spreading.
2010,
Pubmed
Queiroz,
Human plasma very low density lipoprotein carries Indian hedgehog.
2010,
Pubmed
Rainero,
New roles for lysosomal trafficking in morphogen gradient sensing.
2011,
Pubmed
Ramírez-Weber,
Cytonemes: cellular processes that project to the principal signaling center in Drosophila imaginal discs.
1999,
Pubmed
Roy,
Specificity of Drosophila cytonemes for distinct signaling pathways.
2011,
Pubmed
Salas-Vidal,
Imaging filopodia dynamics in the mouse blastocyst.
2004,
Pubmed
Schier,
Nodal morphogens.
2009,
Pubmed
Schwank,
Formation of the long range Dpp morphogen gradient.
2011,
Pubmed
Schwank,
Regulation of organ growth by morphogen gradients.
2010,
Pubmed
Shimmi,
Facilitated transport of a Dpp/Scw heterodimer by Sog/Tsg leads to robust patterning of the Drosophila blastoderm embryo.
2005,
Pubmed
Shimokawa,
Cell surface heparan sulfate chains regulate local reception of FGF signaling in the mouse embryo.
2011,
Pubmed
Smith,
Forming and interpreting gradients in the early Xenopus embryo.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Spirov,
Formation of the bicoid morphogen gradient: an mRNA gradient dictates the protein gradient.
2009,
Pubmed
Steinhauer,
Lipid-modified morphogens: functions of fats.
2009,
Pubmed
Stennard,
Differential expression of VegT and Antipodean protein isoforms in Xenopus.
1999,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Stennard,
The Xenopus T-box gene, Antipodean, encodes a vegetally localised maternal mRNA and can trigger mesoderm formation.
1996,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
St Johnston,
Multiple steps in the localization of bicoid RNA to the anterior pole of the Drosophila oocyte.
1989,
Pubmed
Tanaka,
FGF-induced vesicular release of Sonic hedgehog and retinoic acid in leftward nodal flow is critical for left-right determination.
2005,
Pubmed
Torroja,
Patched controls the Hedgehog gradient by endocytosis in a dynamin-dependent manner, but this internalization does not play a major role in signal transduction.
2004,
Pubmed
Vuilleumier,
Control of Dpp morphogen signalling by a secreted feedback regulator.
2010,
Pubmed
Weigmann,
FlyMove--a new way to look at development of Drosophila.
2003,
Pubmed
Weil,
Changes in bicoid mRNA anchoring highlight conserved mechanisms during the oocyte-to-embryo transition.
2008,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Williams,
Visualizing long-range movement of the morphogen Xnr2 in the Xenopus embryo.
2004,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Wolpert,
Positional information and patterning revisited.
2011,
Pubmed
Wolpert,
Positional information and the spatial pattern of cellular differentiation.
1969,
Pubmed
Yan,
Shaping morphogen gradients by proteoglycans.
2009,
Pubmed
Yasuo,
A two-step model for the fate determination of presumptive endodermal blastomeres in Xenopus embryos.
1999,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Yu,
Fgf8 morphogen gradient forms by a source-sink mechanism with freely diffusing molecules.
2009,
Pubmed
Zeng,
A freely diffusible form of Sonic hedgehog mediates long-range signalling.
2001,
Pubmed
Zhang,
Xenopus VegT RNA is localized to the vegetal cortex during oogenesis and encodes a novel T-box transcription factor involved in mesodermal patterning.
1996,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Zhang,
The role of maternal VegT in establishing the primary germ layers in Xenopus embryos.
1998,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
