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Mar Drugs
2020 Jul 29;188:. doi: 10.3390/md18080400.
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Multiple New Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Vectors in Offshore North Sea Benthos, a Deep Secret Exposed.
Dean KJ
,
Hatfield RG
,
Lee V
,
Alexander RP
,
Lewis AM
,
Maskrey BH
,
Teixeira Alves M
,
Hatton B
,
Coates LN
,
Capuzzo E
,
Ellis JR
,
Turner AD
.
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In early 2018, a large easterly storm hit the East Anglian coast of the UK, colloquially known as the 'Beast from the East', which also resulted in mass strandings of benthic organisms. There were subsequent instances of dogs consuming such organisms, leading to illness and, in some cases, fatalities. Epidemiological investigations identified paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) as the cause, with toxins present in a range of species and concentrations exceeding 14,000 µg STX eq./kg in the sunstar Crossaster papposus. This study sought to better elucidate the geographic spread of any toxicity and identify any key organisms of concern. During the summers of 2018 and 2019, various species of benthic invertebrates were collected from demersal trawl surveys conducted across a variety of locations in the North Sea. An analysis of the benthic epifauna using two independent PST testing methods identified a 'hot spot' of toxic organisms in the Southern Bight, with a mean toxicity of 449 µg STX eq./kg. PSTs were quantified in sea chervil (Alcyonidium diaphanum), the first known detection in the phylum bryozoan, as well as eleven other new vectors (>50 µg STX eq./kg), namely the opisthobranch Scaphander lignarius, the starfish Anseropoda placenta, Asterias rubens, Luidia ciliaris, Astropecten irregularis and Stichastrella rosea, the brittlestar Ophiura ophiura, the crustaceans Atelecyclus rotundatus and Munida rugosa, the sea mouse Aphrodita aculeata, and the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. The two species that showed consistently high PST concentrations were C. papposus and A. diaphanum. Two toxic profiles were identified, with one dominated by dcSTX (decarbamoylsaxitoxin) associated with the majority of samples across the whole sampling region. The second profile occurred only in North-Eastern England and consisted of mostly STX (Saxitoxin) and GTX2 (gonyautoxin 2). Consequently, this study highlights widespread and variable levels of PSTs in the marine benthos, together with the first evidence for toxicity in a large number of new species. These findings highlight impacts to 'One Health', with the unexpected sources of toxins potentially creating risks to animal, human and environmental health, with further work required to assess the severity and geographical/temporal extent of these impacts.
Figure 1. Chemical structures of the commonly-reported Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (TEF = Toxicity Equivalence Factor [10]).
Figure 2. Map indicating locations of each of the sampling locations. Green dots represent sampling locations used in 2018 only, yellow dots represent locations used in 2019 only, and red dots represent locations used in both years. Numbers represent specific the fixed station numbers of the sites. Additional station data can be found in the Appendix A.
Figure 3. Mean toxin profiles using K-means clustering for all samples with a toxin content >80 µg STX eq./kg. Toxic content described as the percentage of total toxicity in µg STX eq./kg.
Figure 4. Box and whisker plot highlighting group means (cross), 1st and 3rd quartiles, outliers (dots). and inter quartile ranges for all groups sampled from 2018 and 2019.
Figure 5. Box and whisker plot highlighting group means (cross), 1st and 3rd quartiles, outliers (dots) and inter quartile ranges for total toxicity for all samples, separated into each year.
Figure 6. Box and whisker plot highlighting station means (cross), 1st and 3rd quartiles, outliers (dots) and inter quartile ranges for all samples at all stations for 2018 and 2019 separately.
Figure 7. Box and whisker plot highlighting group means (cross), 1st and 3rd quartiles, outliers (dots) and inter quartile ranges of all samples within the Starfish and brittlestars group (excluding sunstars) from all stations for 2018 and 2019 combined.
Figure 8. Chromatogram detailing LC-MS/MS quantitative m/z transitions for certified standards (top) and a positive Sunstar (CEND181) (bottom).
Figure 9. Chromatogram of LC-FLD for certified standards (top) and positive Sunstar (CEND181) (bottom). Key a—dcSTX quantitative, b—dcSTX qualitative, c—GTX2&3, d—GTX 5, e—STX, m—matrix.
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