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Sci Rep
2017 Aug 10;71:7815. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-08013-x.
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Sunscreen products impair the early developmental stages of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus.
Corinaldesi C
,
Damiani E
,
Marcellini F
,
Falugi C
,
Tiano L
,
Brugè F
,
Danovaro R
.
Abstract
Marine ecosystems are increasingly threatened by the release of personal care products. Among them, sunscreens are causing concern either for the effects on skin protection from UV radiation and for the potential impacts on marine life. Here, we assessed the UVA protective efficacy of three sunscreens on human dermal fibroblasts, including two common products in Europe and USA, and an eco-friendly product. The sunscreens'' effects were also tested on Paracentrotus lividus, a marine species possibly threatened by these contaminants. We found that all tested sunscreens had similar efficacy in protecting human fibroblasts from UVA radiation. Conversely, the sunscreens'' effects on embryo-larval development of P. lividus were dependent on the product tested. In particular, the USA sunscreen, containing benzophenone-3, homosalate and preservatives, caused the strongest impact on the sea urchin development, whereas the eco-friendly sunscreen determined the weakest effects. These results suggest that although the tested products protected human skin cells from UVA-induced damage, they might severely affect the success of recruitment and survival of the sea urchin. Our findings underline the importance of developing eco-friendly sunscreens for minimising or avoiding the impact on marine life while protecting human skin from UV damage.
Figure 1. Viability of human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) and their intracellular levels of ROS after exposure to UVA (275 kJ m−2). Cell viability, determined by using Guava Via-count dye straight after UVA exposure, time 0 (panel a); cell viability 24 h post-irradiation (panel b); ROS levels determined using carboxy-H2DCFDA probe straight after UVA exposure, time 0 (panel c); ROS levels 24 h post-irradiation (panel d). A, B and C indicate the different sunscreens used to screen HDF. A = European sunscreen, SPF 50+ ; B = USA sunscreen, SPF 50; C = Eco-friendly sunscreen, SPF 40. PC = positive control (HDF without sunscreens and exposed to UVA). NC = negative control (unexposed HDF). Error bars represent standard error (n = 5).
Figure 2. Gene expression analysis of MMP1 (panel a) and COL1A1 (panel b) in human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) exposed to UVA (366 kJ m−2), assessed using qPCR 24 h post-irradiation. Data are reported as normalized fold expression using the 2−∆∆Ct method. HDF were screened with sunscreens A (European sunscreen), B (USA sunscreen), C (eco-friendly sunscreen) or with no sunscreen (PC = positive control) and exposed to UVA. NC = negative control, unexposed HDF. Error bars represent standard error (n = 4).
Figure 3. Effect of the sunscreens on the development of embryos of P. lividus. (A) Percentages of P. lividus anomalous embryos after exposure to Sunscreens A, B and C at different concentration (10, 20 and 50 µL L−1) over time. Error bars represent standard deviation (n = 3). (B) Unexposed embryos at the start of the experiment where the elevated fertilization layer is visible (a); first divisions into blastomeres observed after 70 min (b–d), blastula stage observed after 6 h (e) and gastrula stage observed after 24 h from the beginning of the experiment (f). Abnormal embryos characterized by asymmetrical division into blastomeres and superficial blebs (g–i), signs of cell necrosis (l and n) and esogastrula (m) found in early developmental stages after exposure to sunscreens at the different concentrations. Scale bar: 80 μm.
Figure 4. Effect of the sunscreens on the development of larvae of P. lividus. (A) Percentages of P. lividus anomalous larvae after exposure to Sunscreens (A,B and C), at different concentration (10, 20 and 50 µL L−1) over time. Error bars represent standard deviation (n = 3). (B) Unexposed larva, control (a). Main anomalies found in P. lividus larvae after different exposure times: joined anterior arms (b), crossed skeletal tips at the hood apex (c), incomplete skeletal roots (d). Scale bar: 100 μm.
Figure 5. Effects of Sunscreens (A,B and C), at the concentration of 50 µL L−1, on AChE activity of larvae of P. lividus compared to the control (square symbols). Error bars represent standard deviation (n = 3).
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