Biomimetics (Basel) 2026 Jun 02;116:. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics11060390.

Fitness Distance Balanced Starfish Optimization for Benchmark and Engineering Design Problems.

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Biomimetic optimizers are increasingly used to solve complex engineering problems, yet their performance depends strongly on how effectively they preserve diversity while maintaining selection pressure toward promising regions. In this study, the Starfish Optimization Algorithm (SFOA) is enhanced through fitness-distance-aware selection control, leading to two improved variants: Fitness-Distance Balance Starfish Optimization Algorithm (FDBSFOA) and Dynamic Fitness-Distance Balance Starfish Optimization Algorithm (dFDBSFOA). The proposed framework guides candidate selection using both solution quality and spatial diversity relative to the current best solution, while the dynamic variant further adapts this balance over the course of the search to improve exploration in early iterations and exploitation near convergence. The proposed methods are evaluated on the IEEE CEC2017, CEC2020, and CEC2022 benchmark suites under a unified maximum function evaluation budget, MaxFEs = 10,000 × D, with 21 independent runs, and are further validated on constrained engineering design problems. Performance is assessed using convergence behavior, robustness indicators, computational overhead, and nonparametric statistical tests. The results show that the proposed variants improve the robustness and search efficiency of baseline SFOA, with dFDBSFOA providing the most consistent overall performance while introducing a controlled and interpretable computational overhead. These findings suggest that diversity-aware selection can serve as an effective design principle for strengthening biomimetic optimization frameworks. The current study focuses mainly on continuous, single-objective, and stationary benchmark problems, while the engineering-design validation also includes constrained and discrete/integer-coded cases. Extending the proposed strategy to dynamic, noisy, large-scale mixed-integer, or multi-objective settings remains future work.

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