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Mar Drugs
2023 Apr 23;215:. doi: 10.3390/md21050262.
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Saponins of North Atlantic Sea Cucumber: Chemistry, Health Benefits, and Future Prospectives.
Fagbohun OF
,
Joseph JS
,
Oriyomi OV
,
Rupasinghe HPV
.
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Frondosides are the major saponins (triterpene glycosides) of the North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa). Frondosides possess amphiphilic characteristics due to the presence of various hydrophilic sugar moieties and hydrophobic genin (sapogenin). Saponins are abundant in holothurians, including in sea cucumbers that are widely distributed across the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Over 300 triterpene glycosides have been isolated, identified, and categorized from many species of sea cucumbers. Furthermore, specific saponins from sea cucumbers are broadly classified on the basis of the fron-dosides that have been widely studied. Recent studies have shown that frondoside-containing extracts from C. frondosa exhibit anticancer, anti-obesity, anti-hyperuricemic, anticoagulant, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiangiogenic, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities. However, the exact mechanism(s) of action of biological activities of frondosides is not clearly understood. The function of some frondosides as chemical defense molecules need to be understood. Therefore, this review discusses the different frondosides of C. frondosa and their potential therapeutic activities in relation to the postulated mechanism(s) of action. In addition, recent advances in emerging extraction techniques of frondosides and other saponins and future perspectives are discussed.
Figure 1. The appearance of sea cucumber (C. frondosa) and its major nutrients and bioactives. C. frondosa has been found to contain essential amino acids, glycosaminoglycans, vitamins, chondroitin sulfate, polysaccharides, lectin, and 12-methyltetradecanoic acid.
Figure 2. Structures of frondosides in sea cucumbers (C. frondosa) showing the polar saccharide chains (hexose, pentose, or uronic acid) attached with a non-polar (fat-soluble) aglycone. The saccharide chain includes one or more linear oligosaccharides that have chain lengths varying from 2 to 6 sugar units.
Figure 3. Summary of the extraction of sea cucumber (C. frondosa) materials for saponin detection over the last few decades. There were fewer saponins detected using the old extraction method while future perspectives focus on using little quantities of sea cucumber materials to detect new and novel saponins through the use of AI models such as response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networks (ANNs).
Figure 4. Mechanism of action of frondosides. Frondosides interact with the cell membrane via their phospholipid bilayer leaving a hole. Once inside the cell, frondosides tend to regulate PI3K/AKT/ERK1/2/MAPK signaling pathways as well as upregulate p21, FABP3, and GDF15 genes, thereby leading to the inhibition of metastasis and angiogenesis in the cancer-affected organism. Frondosides also inhibit and downregulate E2F1(cyclin A2, CDC 20, 21, 45, and 47), PAK1, MYC, and Caspase 3. PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinases; FABP3: fatty acid binding protein 3; GDF15: growth and development factor 15.
Figure 5. Chemical structures of other classes of saponins present in sea cucumbers.
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