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Front Microbiol
2022 Jan 01;13:1032873. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1032873.
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Unraveling the effects of sulfamethoxazole on the composition of gut microbiota and immune responses in Stichopus variegatus.
Tan C
,
Zhao W
,
Wen W
,
Chen X
,
Ma Z
,
Yu G
.
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The aim of this work was to reveal the changes in gut microbiota composition and immune responses of sea cucumber (Stichopus variegatus) after being affected by different doses of sulfamethoxazole. In this study, the bacterial 16S rRNA of gut microbiota were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing, and the activities of immune enzymes [lysozyme (LZM), phenoloxidase (PO), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), and acid phosphatase (ACP)] in the gut of S. variegatus were determined. The results showed that the gut microbiota presented a lower richness in the antibiotic treatment groups compared with the control group, and there were significant differences among the dominant bacteria of different concentration treatments. At the genus level, the abundance of Escherichia, Exiguobacterium, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, and Thalassotalea were significantly decreased in the 3 mg/L treatment group, while Vibrio was significantly increased. Furthermore, the 6 mg/L treatment group had less effect on these intestinal dominant bacteria, especially Vibrio. The changes in relative abundance of Vibrio at the species level indicated that lower concentrations of sulfamethoxazole could enhance the enrichment of Vibrio mediterranei and Vibrio fortis in S. variegatus more than higher concentrations of sulfamethoxazole. Meanwhile, the 3 mg/L treatment group significantly increased the activities of PO, AKP, and ACP, and decreased the activity of LZM. These results suggested that lower doses of sulfamethoxazole have a greater effect on the gut microbiota composition and immune responses in S. variegatus and may increase the risk of host infection.
Figure 1. The Rarefaction Curve (A), Venn diagram (B), Shannon diversity index (C), Simpson diversity index (D), and Chao1 richness index (E) for various samples. The HCG, HATG, and HHC represent control group, 3 and 6 mg/L sulfamethoxazole treatment group, respectively. Different letters obtained by one-way ANOVA followed by Duncan’s test indicated significant differences at p < 0.05.
Figure 2. Unweighted UniFrac difference analysis of the diversity among samples (A) and principal co-ordinates analysis (PCoA) of bacterial community of Stichopus variegatus
(B).
Figure 3. Composition and relative abundance of bacterial communities in genera of the different treatment groups.
Figure 4. Comparison of relative abundance differences of the bacterial communities between groups, (A) group HCG and HATG, (B) group HATG and HHC. A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to detect the differences in abundance between the two groups of microbial communities.
Figure 5. The relative abundance changes of Vibrio species of Intestinal microbiota in Stichopus variegatus.
Figure 6. Changes in the activities of immune-related enzymes in Stichopus variegatus after treated by sulfamethoxazole. (A) lysozyme activity (LZM), (B) phenoloxidase activity (PO), (C) alkaline phosphatase activity (AKP), and (D) acid phosphatase (ACP). Data were expressed as mean ± SD (n = 6). The different superscript letters indicated significant differences from other groups (p < 0.05).
Figure 7. Analysis of the correlation between microbiota and immune enzymes. Microbiota was considered at the OTU level and statistically significant Spearman correlations were calculated among samples. * represented p < 0.05, ** represented p < 0.01.
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