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Int J Mol Sci
2022 Aug 12;2316:. doi: 10.3390/ijms23169018.
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Effects of Human Activity on Markers of Oxidative Stress in the Intestine of Holothuria tubulosa, with Special Reference to the Presence of Microplastics.
Lombardo J
,
Solomando A
,
Cohen-Sánchez A
,
Pinya S
,
Tejada S
,
Ferriol P
,
Mateu-Vicens G
,
Box A
,
Faggio C
,
Sureda A
.
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Pollution in the seas and oceans is a global problem, which highlights emerging pollutants and plastics, specifically microplastics (MPs), which are tiny (1 μm to 5 mm) ubiquitous plastic particles present in marine environments that can be ingested by a wide range of organisms. Holothurians are benthic organisms that feed on sediment; therefore, they can be exposed to contaminants present in the particles they ingest. The objective was to evaluate the effects of human activity on Holothuria tubulosa through the study of biomarkers. Specimens were collected in three different areas throughout the island of Eivissa, Spain: (1) a highly urbanized area, with tourist uses and a marina; (2) an urbanized area close to the mouth of a torrent; (3) an area devoid of human activity and considered clean. The results showed a higher presence of microplastics (MPs) in the sediments from the highly urbanized area in relation to the other two areas studied. Similarly, a higher number of MPs were observed in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa from the most affected area, decreasing with the degree of anthropic influence. Both in the sediment and in the holothurians, fibers predominated with more than 75% of the items. In the three areas, mesoplastics were analyzed by means of FTIR, showing that the main polymer was polypropylene (27%) followed by low-density polyethylene (17%) and polystyrene (16%). Regarding the biomarkers of oxidative stress, the intestine of H. tubulosa from the most impacted areas showed higher catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GRd), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels compared to the control area. The intermediate area only presented significant differences in GRd and GST with respect to the clean area. The activities of acetylcholinesterase and the levels and malondialdehyde presented similar values in all areas. In conclusion, human activity evaluated with the presence of MPs induced an antioxidant response in H. tubulosa, although without evidence of oxidative damage or neurotoxicity. H. tubulosa, due to its benthic animal characteristics and easy handling, can be a useful species for monitoring purposes.
Figure 1. Representative MP particles found in the gastrointestinal tract of H. tubulosa (A,B) and representative MP particles found in the sediments (C,D): (A) blue fiber particle; (B) pink fiber particle; (C) black fiber particle; (D) black fiber particle. Scale bar represents 1 mm.
Figure 2. Frequency (%) of plastic polymers found by FTIR analysis (n = 75) of plastic items collected in the three stations (PP: polypropylene, LDPE: low-density polyethylene, PS: polystyrene, HDPE: high-density polyethylene, PVC: polyvinyl chloride, PL: polyester, PET: polyethylene terephthalate, PA: polyamide). Stations names are abbreviated as follows: SA (Sant Antoni de Portmany), SE (Santa Eulà ria), PL (Pou des Lleó).
Figure 3. Activities of antioxidant enzymes in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa: (A) catalase (CAT); (B) superoxide dismutase (SOD); (C) glutathione reductase (GRd). Significant differences (p-value < 0.05) are shown: * indicates differences respect to PL. SA, Sant Antoni de Portmany; SE, Santa Eulà ria des Riu; PL, Pou des Lleó.
Figure 4. Activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST) in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa. Significant differences (p-value < 0.05) are shown: * indicates differences respect to PL. SA, Sant Antoni de Portmany; SE, Santa Eulà ria des Riu; PL, Pou des Lleó.
Figure 5. Levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa. Significant differences (p-value < 0.05) are shown: * indicates differences respect to PL. SA, Sant Antoni de Portmany; SE, Santa Eulà ria des Riu; PL, Pou des Lleó.
Figure 6. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa. No significant differences were observed. SA, Sant Antoni de Portmany; SE, Santa Eulà ria des Riu; PL, Pou des Lleó.
Figure 7. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the digestive tract of H. tubulosa. No significant differences were observed. SA, Sant Antoni de Portmany; SE, Santa Eulà ria des Riu; PL, Pou des Lleó.
Figure 8. Map of the geographic localization of Balearic Islands with the names of the four principal islands. Eivissa Island is indicated in red and, in the inset map, the areas of the three sampling stations (Sant Antoni de Portmany, Santa Eulà ria des Riu, and Pou des Lleó) are indicated.
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