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Mar Drugs
2020 Nov 27;1812:. doi: 10.3390/md18120598.
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Sterol Composition of Sponges, Cnidarians, Arthropods, Mollusks, and Echinoderms from the Deep Northwest Atlantic: A Comparison with Shallow Coastal Gulf of Mexico.
Carreón-Palau L
,
Özdemir NŞ
,
Parrish CC
,
Parzanini C
.
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Triterpenoid biosynthesis is generally anaerobic in bacteria and aerobic in Eukarya. The major class of triterpenoids in bacteria, the hopanoids, is different to that in Eukarya, the lanostanoids, and their 4,4,14-demethylated derivatives, sterols. In the deep sea, the prokaryotic contribution to primary productivity has been suggested to be higher because local environmental conditions prevent classic photosynthetic processes from occurring. Sterols have been used as trophic biomarkers because primary producers have different compositions, and they are incorporated in primary consumer tissues. In the present study, we inferred food supply to deep sea, sponges, cnidarians, mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms from euphotic zone production which is driven by phytoplankton eukaryotic autotrophy. Sterol composition was obtained by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Moreover, we compared the sterol composition of three phyla (i.e., Porifera, Cnidaria, and Echinodermata) collected between a deep and cold-water region and a shallow tropical area. We hypothesized that the sterol composition of shallow tropical benthic organisms would better reflect their photoautotrophic sources independently of the taxonomy. Shallow tropical sponges and cnidarians from environments showed plant and zooxanthellae sterols in their tissues, while their deep-sea counterparts showed phytoplankton and zooplankton sterols. In contrast, echinoids, a class of echinoderms, the most complex phylum along with hemichordates and chordates (deuterostomes), did not show significant differences in their sterol profile, suggesting that cholesterol synthesis is present in deuterostomes other than chordates.
105379 Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, 2219-Postdoctoral Fellowship Program-2014(2). Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Sabbatical stay abroad CVU 201104 Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología
Figure 1. Phylogenetic position of Porifera, Cnidaria, Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Echinodermata in the tree of life of the kingdom Animalia in contrasting geographical zones.
Figure 2. Scatter plot of nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) using Bray–Curtis similarity matrix for sterols (expressed as percentage of total sterols) of sponges T. muricata and Aplysina sp., cnidarians A. agaricus and M. cavernosa, the mollusk Buccinum sp., the arthropod P. tarda, and echinoids P. placenta and E. lucunter from deep, cold (filled symbols) and shallow, tropical (open symbols) waters. Axis scales are arbitrary in nMDS. (a) Sterol composition depending on depth (F1,26 = 75.22, p(MC) = 0.001), and (b) interaction among depth and phyla (F2,26 = 80.20, p(MC) = 0.001). Only variables with Pearson’s correlations with MDS 1 and MDS 2 >0.86 are plotted. Contours grouped with 80% similarity on the basis of hierarchical cluster analysis.
Figure 3. Average contribution of sterols primarily providing the discrimination between (a) deep, cold and shallow, tropical environments considering the three phyla studied. Sterols showed a significant similarity percentages (SIMPER) dissimilarity of 48.76% (t = 8.67 and p(MC) = 0.001). (b) Cnidaria P. agaricus (deep, cold) and M. cavernosa (shallow, tropical) with a significant dissimilarity of 78.76% (t = 11.86 and p(MC) = 0.001). Error bars denote 95% of the confidence interval.
Figure 4. Average contribution of sterols primarily providing the discrimination between deep, cold and shallow, tropical waters. Error bars denote 95% of the confidence interval of (a) Porifera of factor phyla T. muricata (deep, cold) and Aplysina sp. (shallow, tropical) with a significant dissimilarity of 39.30% (t = 9.43 and p(MC) = 0.001), and (b) echinoids of factor phyla P. placenta (deep, cold) and E. lucunter (shallow, tropical) with no significant dissimilarity of 15.99% (t = 2.09 and p(MC) = 0.082).
Figure 5. Map of sampling sites off the northeastern coast of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, in the Northwest Atlantic (cold, deep) and off the coast of Veracruz, Mexico in the southwest Gulf of Mexico (tropical, shallow).
Figure 6. Map of sampling sites off the northeastern coast of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador (Northwest Atlantic). Dots (●) represent the locations of the sampling tows.
Figure 7. Map of sampling sites off Veracruz harbor in the coral reef system of Veracruz, Mexico. Dots (●) represent the locations of the sampling by scuba diving.
Figure 8. Total ion current (TIC) chromatogram and retention time (RT) of standards mix (upper left panel) including cholesterol (48.41), campesterol (50.56), stigmasterol (51.05), and β-sitosterol (52.27). The black number indicates the mass spectrum for cholesterol in the calibration curve (lower left panel). Identified chromatogram peaks of sponge T. muricata (upper right panel) were 24-nordehydrocholesterol (44.53), 24-nordehydrocholestanol (44.75), occelasterol (47.10), cholesterol (48.31), cholestanol (48.52), brassicasterol (49.12), brassicastanol (49.36), stellasterol (50.01), 24-methylenecholesterol (50.24), campesterol (50.40), stigmasterol (50.95), episterol (51.44), 4-24 dimethyl 5, 7-dien-3-β-ol (51.70), poriferasterol (51.81), spinasterol (51.89), β-sitosterol (52.11), and fucosterol (52.87). The black number indicates the mass spectrum for cholesterol in the sponge (lower right panel) for comparison with the standard.
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