Zhang Y , Yañez-Guerra LA , Tinoco AB , Escudero Castelán N , Egertová M , Elphick MR .

Wellcome Trust

	Fig. 1. Sequence alignment of echinoderm SS1-type peptides with protostome ASTC-related peptides and echinoderm SS2-type peptides with chordate SS-type peptides. (A) Alignment of echinoderm SS1-type neuropeptides with protostome ASTC-type peptides. Note that in addition to conserved cysteine residues, there is a conserved FXP motif (in which X is variable) shared by some echinoderm SS1-type peptides, arthropod ASTC-type peptides, and several C. elegans ASTC-type peptides. (B) Alignment of echinoderm SS2-type neuropeptides with chordate SS-type peptides. Note that in addition to conserved cysteine residues, there is a conserved Phe-Trp-Lys/Ile-Trp-Lys (FWK/IWK) motif shared by echinoderm SS2-type peptides and chordate SS-type peptides. The aligned amino acids are highlighted in black if the residue is present in at least 60% of the sequences or highlighted in gray if conservative amino acid substitutions are present in at least 60% of the sequences. The position of a disulphide bridge between the two conserved cysteine residues is shown above the alignments. Species and peptide names are highlighted in taxon-specific colors: yellow (Echinodermata), light green (Arthropoda), dark green (Nematoda), light red (Annelida), dark red (Mollusca), light orange (Brachiopoda), dark orange (Nemertea), pink (Cephalochordata), and blue (Vertebrata). Species name abbreviations are as follows: Ajap (Apostichopus japonicus), Apla (A. planci), Arub (A. rubens), Bflo (B. floridae), Cele (C. elegans), Cgig (Crassostrea gigas), Ctri (Charonia tritonis), Dmel (D. melanogaster), Drer (Danio rerio), Dret (Deroceras reticulatum), Ggal (Gallus gallus), Hsap (Homo sapiens), Hrob (Helobdella robusta), Lame (Lophius americanus), Lana (Lingula anatine), Lgig (Lottia gigantea), Llon, (Lineus longissimus), Locu (Lepisosteus oculatus), Lpol (Limulus polyphemus), Mmus (Mus musculus), Olat (Oryzias latipes), Ovic (Ophionotus victoriae), Pdum (Platynereis dumerilii), Pmax (P. maximus), Spur (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), and Trub (Takifugu rubripes). The accession numbers or references for sequences of the neuropeptides included in this figure are listed in SI Appendix, Table S1.
	Fig. 2. BLOSUM62 cluster map showing sequence similarity of echinoderm SS1-type and SS2-type peptide precursors with SS/ASTC-type peptide precursors in other taxa. Nodes are labeled with phylum-specific colors, as shown in the key, and connections represent BLAST relationships with a P value >1e-2. Vertebrate precursors of UII, URP-type peptides, and MCH, which are structurally and evolutionarily related to SS/ASTC-type neuropeptides, were also included for comparison. Note that echinoderm SS1-type peptide precursors only have connections with protostome ASTC-type precursors, whereas echinoderm SS2-type peptide precursors only have connections with vertebrate SS/CST-type precursors. This indicates that echinoderm SS1-type peptide precursors are orthologs of protostome ASTC-type peptide precursors and that echinoderm SS2-type peptide precursors are orthologs of vertebrate SS/CST-type precursors. The A. rubens SS1 precursor (ArSSP1) and SS2 precursor (ArSSP2) are boxed. The accession numbers or references for sequences of the precursors included in this figure are listed in SI Appendix, Table S2.
	Fig. 3. Comparison of the number of putative orthologous genes on chromosomes containing the ArSSP1 and ArSSP2 genes in A. rubens and chromosomes containing the SS-type precursor gene in the cephalochordate B. floridae and the ASTC-type precursor gene in the mollusk P. maximus. (A) ArChr18 (contains SS2 gene) compared with B. floridae chromosome 14 (BfChr14; contains SST gene) = 252 putative orthologs. (B) A. rubens chromosome 18 (ArChr18; contains SS2 gene) compared with P. maximus chromosome 16 (PmChr16; contains ASTC gene) = 258 putative orthologs. (C) B. floridae chromosome 14 (BfChr14; contains SST gene) compared with P. maximus chromosome 16 (PmChr16; contains ASTC gene) = 283 putative orthologs. (D) A. rubens chromosome 6 (ArChr6; contains SS1 gene) compared with B. floridae chromosome 14 (BfChr14; contains SST gene) = 33 putative orthologs. (E) A. rubens chromosome 6 (ArChr6; contains SS1 gene) compared with P. maximus chromosome 16 (PmChr16; contains ASTC gene) = 21 putative orthologs. (F). A. rubens chromosome 18 (ArChr18; contains SS2 gene) compared with A. rubens chromosome 6 (ArChr6; contains SS1 gene) = 44 putative orthologs. This intraspecies chromosomal analysis provides a comparator for the interspecies chromosomal analysis in A–E. Chromosome lengths and gene positions can be inferred from markers at 1- and 5-Megabase (M) intervals. The large numbers of putative orthologs identified in the comparisons in A (252), B (258), and C (283) provide evidence that the A. rubens SS2 precursor gene, B. floridae SS precursor gene, and P. maximus ASTC precursor gene are located on chromosomes that are extensively derived from the urbilaterian chromosome that contained a gene that is the common ancestor of bilaterian SS/ASTC-type precursor genes. Conversely, the smaller number of putative orthologs in D (33) and E (21) indicates that the ArSSP1 gene is located on a chromosome that is to a much lesser extent derived from the urbilaterian chromosome that contained a gene that is the common ancestor of bilaterian SS/ASTC-type precursor genes.
	Fig. 4. Localization of ArSSP1 mRNA in A. rubens using in situ hybridization. (A) Transverse section of radial nerve cord incubated with antisense probes showing ArSSP1-expressing cells in both the hyponeural region (arrow) and the ectoneural region (arrowhead). Stained cells can also be seen in an adjacent tube foot. The Inset shows that no staining is observed in a section incubated with sense probes, demonstrating the specificity of staining observed in sections incubated with antisense probes. (B) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in A, showing stained cells in the hyponeural region (arrow) and in the subcuticular epithelial layer of the ectoneural region (arrowheads). (C) Transverse section of circumoral nerve ring showing stained cells in the hyponeural region (arrow) and the ectoneural region (arrowhead). Stained cells can also be observed in the coelomic epithelial lining of the peristomial membrane (white arrowhead). (D) Stained cells can be seen in the external epithelial layer of the marginal nerve (arrowhead) and in an adjacent tube foot (arrow). (E) Parasagittal longitudinal section of radial nerve cord showing stained cells in both the hyponeural region (arrows) and ectoneural region (arrowhead). (F) Transverse section of the central disk region showing ArSSP1-expressing cells in the coelomic epithelial lining of the peristomial membrane (arrowhead). (G) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in F, showing stained cells in the coelomic epithelial lining of the peristomial membrane (arrowheads). (H) Transverse section of the central disk region showing stained cells in the esophagus (white arrowhead) and in the peristomial membrane (black arrowheads). (I) Transverse section of the central disk region showing stained cells in the cardiac stomach (arrowheads). (J) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in I, showing round-shaped stained cells (arrowheads) adjacent to the visceral muscle layer. (K) Transverse section of the central disk region showing staining in the pyloric stomach. (L) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in K, showing elongate-shaped stained cells in the mucosal layer (arrowhead). (M) Transverse section of the central disk region showing stained cells in the pyloric duct (black arrowheads) and in the coelomic epithelial lining of the apical muscle (white arrowheads). (N) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in M, showing elongate-shaped stained cells in the mucosal layer (arrowhead). (O) Transverse section of an arm showing stained cells in a pyloric cecum. Elongate-shaped stained cells can be seen in the mucosal layer (arrowhead), and round-shaped stained cells (arrows) can be seen close to the position of the basiepithelial nerve plexus. (P) Longitudinal section of a tube foot showing stained cells at the junction between the stem and the disk region. (Q) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in P, showing stained cells (arrowheads) are located around the basal nerve ring. (R) Transverse section of an ampulla of a tube foot showing stained cells in the coelomic epithelial lining. The Inset shows higher-magnification image of the boxed region, showing stained cells (arrowheads) in the coelomic epithelial lining of the ampulla. (S) Transverse section of the central disk region showing stained cells in the coelomic lining of the body wall (arrowheads) and the coelomic epithelial layer of the apical muscle (arrow). Abbreviations: AM, apical muscle; BNP, basiepithelial nerve plexus; BNR, basal nerve ring; CE, coelomic epithelium; CONR, circumoral nerve ring; CT, collagenous tissue; Di, disk; Ec, ectoneural region; Es; esophagus; Hy, hyponeural region; Lu, lumen; ML, muscle layer; MN, marginal nerve; Mu, mucosa; PD, pyloric duct; PM, peristomial membrane; RHS, radial hemal strand; RNC, radial nerve cord; St, stem. TF, tube foot; THS, transverse hemal strand; VML, visceral muscle layer. (Scale bars, 8 μm in R, Inset; 32 μm in A, B, D, E, J, and L; 60 μm in A, Inset, C, G, H, K, N, O, Q, R, and S; 120 μm in F, I, M, and P.)
	Fig. 5. Localization of ArSS1 in A. rubens using immunohistochemistry. (A) Transverse section of a radial nerve cord showing ArSS1 immunoreactivity (immunostaining) in the hyponeural (arrow) and ectoneural (arrowhead) regions. The Inset shows that no staining is observed in sections of radial nerve cord incubated with affinity-purified ArSS1 antibodies preabsorbed with ArSS1 peptide, demonstrating the specificity of immunostaining observed in sections incubated with affinity-purified ArSS1 antibodies. (B) Transverse section of the circumoral nerve ring showing immunostained cells in the hyponeural region (arrow) and in the subcuticular epithelial layer of the ectoneural region (arrowheads); note the regional variation in the density of immunostained fibers in the ectoneural neuropile (asterisks). Immunostaining can also be seen here in the basiepithelial nerve plexus of the adjacent peristomial membrane. (C) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in B, showing round-shaped monopolar immunostained cells (arrows) in the hyponeural region and immunostained fibers (white arrows) parallel to the collagenous tissue layer (white arrowhead), which is located between the hyponeural and ectoneural regions. (D) Immunostaining can be seen here in a marginal nerve; note the strongly immunostained fibers (arrowhead) emanating from the marginal nerve. (E) Parasagittal longitudinal section of a radial nerve cord showing immunostained cells in the hyponeural region (arrow) and in the subcuticular epithelial layer of the ectoneural region (arrowheads); note also the regional variation in the density of immunostained fibers in the ectoneural neuropile (asterisks). (F) Transverse section through the central disk region showing ArSS1 immunoreactivity (immunostaining) in the peristomial membrane and the adjacent circumoral nerve ring. (G) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in F, showing immunostained cells in the coelomic epithelium (white arrowhead) and immunostained fibers in the underlying nerve plexus (black arrowhead). Immunostained fibers can also be seen here in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow) underlying the external epithelial layer of the peristomial membrane. The collagenous tissue layer that separates the two nerve plexi is unstained. (H) Transverse section through the central disk region showing immunostaining in a longitudinal section of the esophagus and in the peristomial membrane and circumoral nerve ring. More specifically, immunostaining can be seen in the coelomic epithelium (arrowhead) and the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (I) Horizontal section of the cardiac stomach showing immunostained fibers in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow) with regional variation in staining intensity. The Inset shows a higher-magnification image of the boxed region, showing immunostained bipolar shaped cells present in the mucosal layer (arrowhead) and immunostained fibers in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (J) Horizontal section of the pyloric stomach showing immunostained fibers in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow) with regional variation in staining intensity. The Inset shows a higher-magnification image of the boxed region, showing immunostained bipolar shaped cells in the mucosal layer (arrowhead) and immunostained fibers in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (K) Transverse section through the central disk region showing intense immunostaining in the region of the digestive system linking the cardiac stomach with the pyloric stomach. (L) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in K, showing immunostained bipolar-shaped cells present in the mucosal layer (arrowhead) and intense immunostaining in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (M) Transverse section of a pyloric duct showing immunostaining in the basiepithelial nerve plexus on both the aboral and oral sides but with denser staining on the oral side (arrow). (N) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in M, showing immunostained bipolar-shaped cells (arrowhead) present in the mucosal layer and immunostained fibers in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (O) Transverse section of a starfish arm showing regional variation in the intensity of immunostaining in a pyloric cecum, with immunostaining most intense in the oral region that is continuous with the pyloric ducts. (P) Higher-magnification image of the boxed region in O, showing immunostained bipolar-shaped cells in the mucosal layer (arrowhead) and immunostaining in the basiepithelial nerve plexus (arrow). (Q) Longitudinal section of a tube foot showing ArSS1 immunoreactivity in the subepithelial nerve plexus along the length of the stem and extending into the basal nerve ring of the disk region. The Inset shows a higher-magnification image of the boxed region, showing immunostaining in the basal nerve ring of the disk region. (R) Parasagittal longitudinal section of an ampulla of a tube foot showing immunostaining in the coelomic epithelial lining of the ampulla. The Inset shows a higher-magnification image of the boxed region, showing immunostaining in the coelomic epithelial layer (arrowhead). (S) Transverse section of the aboral body wall showing immunostaining in the subepithelial nerve plexus beneath the external epithelial layer of aboral body wall. (T) Transverse section of the aboral body wall showing immunostaining (arrow) in a pedicellaria. (U) Transverse section of an arm tip, showing immunostaining in the terminal tentacle, lateral lappet, optic cushion, and the surrounding body wall epithelium. Abbreviations: Amp, ampulla; BNP, basi-epithelial nerve plexus; BW, body wall; CE, coelomic epithelium; CONR, circumoral nerve ring; CS, cardiac stomach; CT, collagenous tissue; Di, disk; Ec, ectoneural region; Ep, epithelium; Es, esophagus; Hy, hyponeural region; LL, lateral lappet; Lu, lumen; MN, marginal nerve; Mu, mucosa; OC, optic cushion; OS, ossicle; Pe, pedicellaria; PM, peristomial membrane; PS, pyloric stomach; RHS, radial hemal strand; RNC: radial nerve cord; SNP, subepithelial nerve plexus; St, stem; TF, tube foot. THS, transverse hemal strand; TT, terminal tentacle. (Scale bars, 12 μm in Q, Inset; 20 μm in C, G, I, Inset, and R, Inset; 32 μm in D, J, Inset, N, P, S, and T; 60 μm in A, A, Inset, B, E, F, L, M, O, Q, R, and U; 120 μm in H, I, and K; and 160 μm in J.)
	Fig. 6. ArSS1 causes concentration-dependent contraction of tube foot, apical muscle, and cardiac stomach preparations from A. rubens. (A) Representative recordings showing that ACh (black) and ArSS1 (red) cause contraction of a tube foot preparation when tested at a concentration of 10−6 M. The upward-pointing arrowheads show when test agents were added, and the downward-pointing arrowheads show when the preparation was washed with seawater. (B) Graph showing that ArSS1 causes concentration-dependent contraction of tube foot preparations at concentrations ranging from 10−8 M to 10−6 M. The responses are expressed as the mean percentage (± SEM; n = 8) of the contraction induced by 10−6 M ACh. (C) Representative recordings showing that ACh (black) and ArSS1 (red) cause contraction of an apical muscle preparation when tested at a concentration of 10−6 M. The upward-pointing arrowheads show when test agents were added, and the downward-pointing arrowheads show when the preparation was washed with seawater. (D) Graph showing that ArSS1 causes concentration-dependent contraction of apical muscle preparations at concentrations ranging from 10−8 M to 10−6 M. The responses are expressed as the mean percentage (± SEM; n = 8) of the contraction induced by 10−6 M ACh. (E) Representative recordings showing that NGFFYamide (10−7 M; black) and ArSS1 (10−6 M; red) cause contraction of a cardiac stomach preparation. The upward-pointing arrowheads show when test agents were added, and the downward-pointing arrowheads show when the preparation was washed with seawater. (F) Graph showing that ArSS1 causes concentration-dependent contraction of cardiac stomach preparations at concentrations ranging from 10−9 M to 10−6 M. The responses are expressed as the mean percentage (± SEM; n = 8) of the contraction induced by 10−7 M NGFFYamide.
	Fig. 7. Diagram showing a model of the evolution of SS/ASTC-type neuropeptide signaling in the Bilateria, informed by the findings of this study. The occurrence of SS-type neuropeptides/precursors (red-filled boxes) and ASTC-type neuropeptide/precursors (blue-filled boxes) in different taxa is shown on the right side of the phylogenetic tree, with a dash (-) indicating absence of an SS-type and/or ASTC-type neuropeptide/precursor. Taxa in which the receptors for a SS-type or ASTC-type neuropeptide have been identified experimentally are identified by black outlining of boxes. Based on the phylogenetic distribution of SS/ASTC-type neuropeptides, it is inferred that duplication of a gene encoding an ancestral SS/ASTC-type neuropeptide (purple box) in a common ancestor of the Bilateria gave rise to genes encoding precursors of paralogous SS-type and ASTC-type neuropeptides, as shown at the root of the tree. ASTC-type and SS-type neuropeptides were lost in chordates and protostomes, respectively, because of functional redundancy as inhibitory neuropeptides. However, both ASTC-type (e.g., ArSS1) and SS-type (e.g., ArSS2) neuropeptides were retained in echinoderms because SS-type neuropeptides (e.g., ArSS2) were retained as inhibitory neuropeptides and ASTC-type neuropeptides (e.g., ArSS1) acquired a new role as excitatory neuropeptides. Lineage-specific genome/gene duplications (e.g., ×2) or gene losses (e.g., −1) that have given rise to variation in the number of SS/ASTC-type neuropeptides in different taxa are shown in parentheses. Species names are as follows: H. sapiens (Homo sapiens), C. intestinalis (Ciona intestinalis), B. floridae (Branchiostoma floridae), A. rubens (Asterias rubens), P. dumerilii (Platynereis dumerilii), P. maximus (Pecten maximus), L. anatine (Lingula anatine), L. longissimus (Lineus longissimus), C. elegans (Caenorhabditis elegans), L. polyphemus (Limulus polyphemus), and D. melanogaster (Drosophila melanogaster).

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