ECB-ART-50224
Microbiol Rev
1992 Mar 01;561:229-64. doi: 10.1128/mr.56.1.229-264.1992.
Show Gene links
Show Anatomy links
Recent evidence for evolution of the genetic code.
Osawa S
,
Jukes TH
,
Watanabe K
,
Muto A
.
Abstract
The genetic code, formerly thought to be frozen, is now known to be in a state of evolution. This was first shown in 1979 by Barrell et al. (G. Barrell, A. T. Bankier, and J. Drouin, Nature [London] 282:189-194, 1979), who found that the universal codons AUA (isoleucine) and UGA (stop) coded for methionine and tryptophan, respectively, in human mitochondria. Subsequent studies have shown that UGA codes for tryptophan in Mycoplasma spp. and in all nonplant mitochondria that have been examined. Universal stop codons UAA and UAG code for glutamine in ciliated protozoa (except Euplotes octacarinatus) and in a green alga, Acetabularia. E. octacarinatus uses UAA for stop and UGA for cysteine. Candida species, which are yeasts, use CUG (leucine) for serine. Other departures from the universal code, all in nonplant mitochondria, are CUN (leucine) for threonine (in yeasts), AAA (lysine) for asparagine (in platyhelminths and echinoderms), UAA (stop) for tyrosine (in planaria), and AGR (arginine) for serine (in several animal orders) and for stop (in vertebrates). We propose that the changes are typically preceded by loss of a codon from all coding sequences in an organism or organelle, often as a result of directional mutation pressure, accompanied by loss of the tRNA that translates the codon. The codon reappears later by conversion of another codon and emergence of a tRNA that translates the reappeared codon with a different assignment. Changes in release factors also contribute to these revised assignments. We also discuss the use of UGA (stop) as a selenocysteine codon and the early history of the code.
PubMed ID: 1579111
PMC ID: PMC372862
Article link: Microbiol Rev
Grant support: [+]
R01 HG00312 NHGRI NIH HHS
References [+] :
Ainley,
var1 Gene on the mitochondrial genome of Torulopsis glabrata.
1985, Pubmed
Ainley, var1 Gene on the mitochondrial genome of Torulopsis glabrata. 1985, Pubmed
Akiyama, A specific role of MutT protein: to prevent dG.dA mispairing in DNA replication. 1989, Pubmed
Andachi, Occurrence of unmodified adenine and uracil at the first position of anticodon in threonine tRNAs in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1987, Pubmed
Andachi, Codon recognition patterns as deduced from sequences of the complete set of transfer RNA species in Mycoplasma capricolum. Resemblance to mitochondria. 1989, Pubmed
Anderson, Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome. 1981, Pubmed
Anderson, Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome. 1982, Pubmed
Anfinsen, An active variant of staphylococcal nuclease containing norleucine in place of methionine. 1969, Pubmed
Aota, Diversity in G + C content at the third position of codons in vertebrate genes and its cause. 1986, Pubmed
Asakawa, Strand-specific nucleotide composition bias in echinoderm and vertebrate mitochondrial genomes. 1991, Pubmed , Echinobase
BOROSOOK, The uptake in vitro of C14-labeled glycine, l-leucine, and l-lysine by different components of guinea pig liver homogenate. 1950, Pubmed
Barahona, Sequence of one alpha- and two beta-tubulin genes of Tetrahymena pyriformis. Structural and functional relationships with other eukaryotic tubulin genes. 1988, Pubmed
Baron, Mutagenesis of selC, the gene for the selenocysteine-inserting tRNA-species in E. coli: effects on in vivo function. 1990, Pubmed
Barrell, A different genetic code in human mitochondria. 1979, Pubmed
Barrell, Different pattern of codon recognition by mammalian mitochondrial tRNAs. 1980, Pubmed
Bernardi, Compositional constraints and genome evolution. 1986, Pubmed
Bernardi, The isochore organization of the human genome. 1989, Pubmed
Bernardi, The mosaic genome of warm-blooded vertebrates. 1985, Pubmed
Berry, Recognition of UGA as a selenocysteine codon in type I deiodinase requires sequences in the 3' untranslated region. 1991, Pubmed
Berry, Type I iodothyronine deiodinase is a selenocysteine-containing enzyme. 1991, Pubmed
Bibb, Sequence and gene organization of mouse mitochondrial DNA. 1981, Pubmed
Brown, Sequence analysis suggests that tetra-nucleotides signal the termination of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. 1990, Pubmed
Brown, The signal for the termination of protein synthesis in procaryotes. 1990, Pubmed
Browning, Cytochrome oxidase subunit III gene in Neurospora crassa mitochondria. Location and sequence. 1982, Pubmed
Burger, Subunit 1 of cytochrome oxidase from Neurospora crassa: nucleotide sequence of the coding gene and partial amino acid sequence of the protein. 1982, Pubmed
Böck, Selenocysteine, a highly specific component of certain enzymes, is incorporated by a UGA-directed co-translational mechanism. 1988, Pubmed
Böck, Selenocysteine: the 21st amino acid. 1991, Pubmed
COWIE, Amino acid analog incorporation into bacterial proteins. 1959, Pubmed
Canaday, Yeast mitochondrial methionine initiator tRNA: characterization and nucleotide sequence. 1980, Pubmed
Cantatore, The complete nucleotide sequence, gene organization, and genetic code of the mitochondrial genome of Paracentrotus lividus. 1989, Pubmed , Echinobase
Caron, Does Paramecium primaurelia use a different genetic code in its macronucleus? NULL, Pubmed
Cerretti, The spc ribosomal protein operon of Escherichia coli: sequence and cotranscription of the ribosomal protein genes and a protein export gene. 1983, Pubmed
Chambers, The structure of the mouse glutathione peroxidase gene: the selenocysteine in the active site is encoded by the 'termination' codon, TGA. 1986, Pubmed
Chevalier, Organization and nucleotide sequences of the Spiroplasma citri genes for ribosomal protein S2, elongation factor Ts, spiralin, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase, and an unidentified protein. 1990, Pubmed
Clark-Walker, Location of transcriptional control signals and transfer RNA sequences in Torulopsis glabrata mitochondrial DNA. 1985, Pubmed
Clary, The mitochondrial DNA molecular of Drosophila yakuba: nucleotide sequence, gene organization, and genetic code. 1985, Pubmed
Cone, Chemical characterization of the selenoprotein component of clostridial glycine reductase: identification of selenocysteine as the organoselenium moiety. 1976, Pubmed
Cox, Altered base ratios in the DNA of an Escherichia coli mutator strain. 1967, Pubmed
Crick, Codon--anticodon pairing: the wobble hypothesis. 1966, Pubmed
Crick, CODES WITHOUT COMMAS. 1957, Pubmed
Crick, The origin of the genetic code. 1968, Pubmed
Crick, A speculation on the origin of protein synthesis. 1976, Pubmed
Cronin, Amino acids in meteorites. 1983, Pubmed
DOUNCE, [Duplicating mechanism for peptide chain and nucleic acid synthesis]. 1952, Pubmed
Desjardins, Sequence and gene organization of the chicken mitochondrial genome. A novel gene order in higher vertebrates. 1990, Pubmed
Diamond, Structure and properties of a bovine liver UGA suppressor serine tRNA with a tryptophan anticodon. 1981, Pubmed
Dubin, Sequence and structure of a methionine transfer RNA from mosquito mitochondria. 1984, Pubmed
Dudler, A mycoplasma high-affinity transport system and the in vitro invasiveness of mouse sarcoma cells. 1988, Pubmed
Eigen, How old is the genetic code? Statistical geometry of tRNA provides an answer. 1989, Pubmed
Elliott, Inosine biosynthesis in transfer RNA by an enzymatic insertion of hypoxanthine. 1984, Pubmed
Fiers, Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene. 1976, Pubmed
Flohe, Glutathione peroxidase: a selenoenzyme. 1973, Pubmed
Forchhammer, Selenocysteine synthase from Escherichia coli. Analysis of the reaction sequence. 1991, Pubmed
Forstrom, Identification of the catalytic site of rat liver glutathione peroxidase as selenocysteine. 1978, Pubmed
Fox, Natural variation in the genetic code. 1987, Pubmed
Gadaleta, The complete nucleotide sequence of the Rattus norvegicus mitochondrial genome: cryptic signals revealed by comparative analysis between vertebrates. 1989, Pubmed
Garesse, Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial DNA: gene organization and evolutionary considerations. 1988, Pubmed
Garey, Platyhelminth mitochondrial DNA: evidence for early evolutionary origin of a tRNA(serAGN) that contains a dihydrouridine arm replacement loop, and of serine-specifying AGA and AGG codons. 1989, Pubmed
Grisi, Nucleotide sequence of a region of the mitochondrial genome of Aspergillus nidulans including the gene for ATPase subunit 6. 1982, Pubmed
Grivell, Molecular evolution. Deciphering divergent codes. NULL, Pubmed
Gupta, Halobacterium volcanii tRNAs. Identification of 41 tRNAs covering all amino acids, and the sequences of 33 class I tRNAs. 1984, Pubmed
Günzler, The amino-acid sequence of bovine glutathione peroxidase. 1984, Pubmed
Hanyu, Dramatic events in ciliate evolution: alteration of UAA and UAG termination codons to glutamine codons due to anticodon mutations in two Tetrahymena tRNAs. 1986, Pubmed
Harper, Differential use of termination codons in ciliated protozoa. 1989, Pubmed
Hartmanis, Isolation of a selenium-containing thiolase from Clostridium kluyveri: identification of the selenium moiety as selenomethionine. 1982, Pubmed
Hatfield, Opal suppressor serine tRNAs from bovine liver form phosphoseryl-tRNA. 1982, Pubmed
Heckman, Novel features in the genetic code and codon reading patterns in Neurospora crassa mitochondria based on sequences of six mitochondrial tRNAs. 1980, Pubmed
Heider, Occurrence and functional compatibility within Enterobacteriaceae of a tRNA species which inserts selenocysteine into protein. 1989, Pubmed
Helftenbein, Nucleotide sequence of a macronuclear DNA molecule coding for alpha-tubulin from the ciliate Stylonychia lemnae. Special codon usage: TAA is not a translation termination codon. 1985, Pubmed
Helftenbein, Both alpha-tubulin genes are transcriptionally active in Stylonychia lemnae. 1988, Pubmed
Hendriks, Primary and secondary structure of the 18S ribosomal RNA of the bird spider Eurypelma californica and evolutionary relationships among eukaryotic phyla. 1988, Pubmed
Hensgens, The sequence of the gene for cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, a frameshift containing gene for cytochrome c oxidase subunit II and seven unassigned reading frames in Trypanosoma brucei mitochondrial maxi-circle DNA. 1984, Pubmed
Hensgens, Nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial structural gene for subunit 9 of yeast ATPase complex. 1979, Pubmed
Herrick, Alternative processing during development of a macronuclear chromosome family in Oxytricha fallax. 1987, Pubmed
Hill, The cDNA for rat selenoprotein P contains 10 TGA codons in the open reading frame. 1991, Pubmed
Himeno, Unusual genetic codes and a novel gene structure for tRNA(AGYSer) in starfish mitochondrial DNA. 1987, Pubmed , Echinobase
Hiratsuka, The complete sequence of the rice (Oryza sativa) chloroplast genome: intermolecular recombination between distinct tRNA genes accounts for a major plastid DNA inversion during the evolution of the cereals. 1989, Pubmed
Holmquist, Evolution of chromosome bands: molecular ecology of noncoding DNA. 1989, Pubmed
Holmquist, Evolution of transfer RNA. 1973, Pubmed
Hori, Evolutionary change in 5S RNA secondary structure and a phylogenic tree of 54 5S RNA species. 1979, Pubmed
Hori, Origin and evolution of organisms as deduced from 5S ribosomal RNA sequences. 1987, Pubmed
Horowitz, An unusual genetic code in nuclear genes of Tetrahymena. 1985, Pubmed
HsuChen, Sequences of the coding and flanking regions of the large ribosomal subunit RNA gene of mosquito mitochondria. 1984, Pubmed
HsuChen, A cluster of four transfer RNA genes in mosquito mitochondrial DNA. 1984, Pubmed
HsuChen, A major lysine tRNA with a CUU anticodon in insect mitochondria. 1983, Pubmed
Hudspeth, Location and structure of the var1 gene on yeast mitochondrial DNA: nucleotide sequence of the 40.0 allele. 1982, Pubmed
Ikeda, Nucleotide sequences of two tRNA gene clusters from Micrococcus luteus. 1990, Pubmed
Ikeda, Nucleotide sequences of nine tRNA genes from Micrococcus luteus. 1990, Pubmed
Ikemura, Correlation between the abundance of yeast transfer RNAs and the occurrence of the respective codons in protein genes. Differences in synonymous codon choice patterns of yeast and Escherichia coli with reference to the abundance of isoaccepting transfer RNAs. 1982, Pubmed
Ikemura, Correlation between the abundance of Escherichia coli transfer RNAs and the occurrence of the respective codons in its protein genes: a proposal for a synonymous codon choice that is optimal for the E. coli translational system. 1981, Pubmed
Ikemura, Correlation between the abundance of Escherichia coli transfer RNAs and the occurrence of the respective codons in its protein genes. 1981, Pubmed
Ikemura, Global variation in G+C content along vertebrate genome DNA. Possible correlation with chromosome band structures. 1988, Pubmed
Inamine, Evidence that UGA is read as a tryptophan codon rather than as a stop codon by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. 1990, Pubmed
Inamine, Nucleotide sequence of the P1 attachment-protein gene of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. 1988, Pubmed
Iwabe, Evolutionary relationship of archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes inferred from phylogenetic trees of duplicated genes. 1989, Pubmed
Jacobs, Nucleotide sequence and gene organization of sea urchin mitochondrial DNA. 1988, Pubmed , Echinobase
Jacobs, Conserved tRNA gene cluster in starfish mitochondrial DNA. 1989, Pubmed , Echinobase
Jukes, Evolution of anticodons: variations in the genetic code. 1987, Pubmed
Jukes, Amino acid codes in mitochondria as possible clues to primitive codes. 1981, Pubmed
Jukes, Genetic code 1990. Outlook. 1990, Pubmed
Jukes, Amino acid composition of proteins: Selection against the genetic code. 1975, Pubmed
Jukes, Silent nucleotide substitutions and G + C content of some mitochondrial and bacterial genes. 1986, Pubmed
Jukes, Release factors and the genetic code. 1991, Pubmed
Jukes, The genetic code in mitochondria and chloroplasts. 1990, Pubmed
Jukes, The genetic code. II. 1965, Pubmed
Jukes, A change in the genetic code in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1985, Pubmed
Jukes, Possibilities for the evolution of the genetic code from a preceding form. 1973, Pubmed
Jukes, Evolution of the amino acid code: inferences from mitochondrial codes. 1983, Pubmed
Jukes, Divergence and directional mutation pressures. NULL, Pubmed
Jungck, The genetic code as a periodic table. 1978, Pubmed
Kagawa, High guanine plus cytosine content in the third letter of codons of an extreme thermophile. DNA sequence of the isopropylmalate dehydrogenase of Thermus thermophilus. 1984, Pubmed
Kano, Novel anticodon composition of transfer RNAs in Micrococcus luteus, a bacterium with a high genomic G + C content. Correlation with codon usage. 1991, Pubmed
Kawaguchi, The codon CUG is read as serine in an asporogenic yeast Candida cylindracea. 1989, Pubmed
King, Non-Darwinian evolution. 1969, Pubmed
Komine, Genomic organization and physical mapping of the transfer RNA genes in Escherichia coli K12. 1990, Pubmed
Kondo, Cloning and sequence analysis of the arginine deiminase gene from Mycoplasma arginini. 1990, Pubmed
Kuchino, Tetrahymena thermophila glutamine tRNA and its gene that corresponds to UAA termination codon. 1985, Pubmed
Köchel, Mitochondrial tRNA gene clusters in Aspergillus nidulans: organization and nucleotide sequence. 1981, Pubmed
Lagerkvist, Unorthodox codon reading and the evolution of the genetic code. 1981, Pubmed
Lagerkvist, "Two out of three": an alternative method for codon reading. 1978, Pubmed
Lee, Selenocysteine tRNA[Ser]Sec gene is ubiquitous within the animal kingdom. 1990, Pubmed
Lee, Identification of a selenocysteyl-tRNA(Ser) in mammalian cells that recognizes the nonsense codon, UGA. 1989, Pubmed
Lee, Isolation of a rat mitochondrial release factor. Accommodation of the changed genetic code for termination. 1987, Pubmed
Lehman, Genetic code development by stop codon takeover. 1988, Pubmed
Leinfelder, Gene for a novel tRNA species that accepts L-serine and cotranslationally inserts selenocysteine. 1988, Pubmed
Leinfelder, In vitro synthesis of selenocysteinyl-tRNA(UCA) from seryl-tRNA(UCA): involvement and characterization of the selD gene product. 1990, Pubmed
Li, Assembly of the mitochondrial membrane system: sequences of yeast mitochondrial valine and an unusual threonine tRNA gene. 1979, Pubmed
Loftfield, The frequency of errors in protein biosynthesis. 1972, Pubmed
MILLER, A production of amino acids under possible primitive earth conditions. 1953, Pubmed
Macino, Assembly of the mitochondrial membrane system: partial sequence of a mitochondrial ATPase gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 1979, Pubmed
Macino, Use of the UGA terminator as a tryptophan codon in yeast mitochondria. 1979, Pubmed
Martin, Import of nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid coded lysine-accepting transfer ribonucleic acid (anticodon C-U-U) into yeast mitochondria. 1979, Pubmed
Martin, 5-[[(carboxymethyl)amino]methyl]uridine is found in the anticodon of yeast mitochondrial tRNAs recognizing two-codon families ending in a purine. 1990, Pubmed
Maréchal, Sequence and codon recognition of bean mitochondria and chloroplast tRNAsTrp: evidence for a high degree of homology. 1985, Pubmed
Maréchal-Drouard, Transfer RNAs of potato (Solanum tuberosum) mitochondria have different genetic origins. 1990, Pubmed
Menon, Cloning and sequencing of the genes encoding the large and small subunits of the periplasmic (NiFeSe) hydrogenase of Desulfovibrio baculatus. 1987, Pubmed
Meyer, UGA is translated as cysteine in pheromone 3 of Euplotes octocarinatus. 1991, Pubmed
Mizutani, Study of mammalian selenocysteyl-tRNA synthesis with [75Se]HSe. 1991, Pubmed
Motchnik, Multiple selenocysteine content of selenoprotein P in rats. 1990, Pubmed
Motchnik, Rat plasma selenoprotein P properties and purification. 1989, Pubmed
Muramatsu, A novel lysine-substituted nucleoside in the first position of the anticodon of minor isoleucine tRNA from Escherichia coli. 1988, Pubmed
Muramatsu, Codon and amino-acid specificities of a transfer RNA are both converted by a single post-transcriptional modification. 1988, Pubmed
Muto, Preferential use of A- and U-rich codons for Mycoplasma capricolum ribosomal proteins S8 and L6. 1984, Pubmed
Muto, The organization and evolution of transfer RNA genes in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1990, Pubmed
Muto, The guanine and cytosine content of genomic DNA and bacterial evolution. 1987, Pubmed
NIRENBERG, The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides. 1961, Pubmed
Nellen, Actin genes and actin messenger RNA in Acanthamoeba castellanii. Nucleotide sequence of the split actin gene I. 1982, Pubmed
Netzker, Nucleotide sequence of Aspergillus nidulans mitochondrial genes coding for ATPase subunit 6, cytochrome oxidase subunit 3, seven unidentified proteins, four tRNAs and L-rRNA. 1982, Pubmed
Nghiem, The mutY gene: a mutator locus in Escherichia coli that generates G.C----T.A transversions. 1988, Pubmed
Nishimura, Structure, biosynthesis, and function of queuosine in transfer RNA. 1983, Pubmed
Nomoto, Characterization of two types of histone H2B genes from macronuclei of Tetrahymena thermophila. 1987, Pubmed
Oba, CGG: an unassigned or nonsense codon in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1991, Pubmed
Oba, Translation in vitro of codon UGA as tryptophan in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1991, Pubmed
Oh, Selenium as a component of glutathione periodase isolated from ovine erythrocytes. 1974, Pubmed
Ohama, Spectinomycin operon of Micrococcus luteus: evolutionary implications of organization and novel codon usage. 1989, Pubmed
Ohama, Role of GC-biased mutation pressure on synonymous codon choice in Micrococcus luteus, a bacterium with a high genomic GC-content. 1990, Pubmed
Ohama, Evolution of the mitochondrial genetic code. IV. AAA as an asparagine codon in some animal mitochondria. 1990, Pubmed
Ohama, Organization and codon usage of the streptomycin operon in Micrococcus luteus, a bacterium with a high genomic G + C content. 1987, Pubmed
Ohkubo, The ribosomal protein gene cluster of Mycoplasma capricolum. 1987, Pubmed
Ohyama, Structure and organization of Marchantia polymorpha chloroplast genome. I. Cloning and gene identification. 1988, Pubmed
Old, The recognition of methionine analogues by Escherichia coli methionyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase. 1975, Pubmed
Osawa, Evolution of the genetic code as affected by anticodon content. 1988, Pubmed
Osawa, Evolution of the mitochondrial genetic code. I. Origin of AGR serine and stop codons in metazoan mitochondria. 1989, Pubmed
Osawa, Prokaryotic genetic code. 1990, Pubmed
Osawa, Codon reassignment (codon capture) in evolution. 1989, Pubmed
Osawa, Evolution of the mitochondrial genetic code. III. Reassignment of CUN codons from leucine to threonine during evolution of yeast mitochondria. 1990, Pubmed
Osawa, Evolution of the mitochondrial genetic code. II. Reassignment of codon AUA from isoleucine to methionine. 1989, Pubmed
Osawa, Evolutionary changes in the genetic code. 1990, Pubmed
Osawa, Directional mutation pressure and transfer RNA in choice of the third nucleotide of synonymous two-codon sets. 1988, Pubmed
Ozeki, Genetic system of chloroplasts. 1987, Pubmed
PATTERSON, Effect of selenium in preventing exudative diathesis in chicks. 1957, Pubmed
PINSENT, The need for selenite and molybdate in the formation of formic dehydrogenase by members of the coli-aerogenes group of bacteria. 1954, Pubmed
Pape, Cloning and characterization of the gene for the yeast cytoplasmic threonyl-tRNA synthetase. 1985, Pubmed
Prat, Nucleotide sequence of the Paramecium primaurelia G surface protein. A huge protein with a highly periodic structure. 1986, Pubmed
Preer, Deviation from the universal code shown by the gene for surface protein 51A in Paramecium. NULL, Pubmed
Pritchard, Analysis of NADH dehydrogenase proteins, ATPase subunit 9, cytochrome b, and ribosomal protein L14 encoded in the mitochondrial DNA of Paramecium. 1990, Pubmed
Pritchard, Nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of Paramecium. 1990, Pubmed
Read, Selenium and amino acid composition of selenoprotein P, the major selenoprotein in rat serum. 1990, Pubmed
Renbaum, Cloning, characterization, and expression in Escherichia coli of the gene coding for the CpG DNA methylase from Spiroplasma sp. strain MQ1(M.SssI). 1990, Pubmed
Roe, The complete nucleotide sequence of the Xenopus laevis mitochondrial genome. 1985, Pubmed
Rotruck, Selenium: biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. 1973, Pubmed
SUEOKA, On the genetic basis of variation and heterogeneity of DNA base composition. 1962, Pubmed
Safran, Evidence that type II 5'-deiodinase is not a selenoprotein. 1991, Pubmed
Samuelsson, Apparent lack of discrimination in the reading of certain codons in Mycoplasma mycoides. 1987, Pubmed
Sanger, A two-dimensional fractionation procedure for radioactive nucleotides. 1965, Pubmed
Schneider, Strong homology between the small subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase of two species of Acetabularia and the occurrence of unusual codon usage. 1989, Pubmed
Schön, Protein biosynthesis in organelles requires misaminoacylation of tRNA. 1988, Pubmed
Sebald, Identification of amino acid substitutions in the dicyclohexylcarbodiimide-binding subunit of the mitochondrial ATPase complex from oligomycin-resistant mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 1979, Pubmed
Seilhamer, Altered genetic code in Paramecium mitochondria: possible evolutionary trends. 1982, Pubmed
Sharp, An evolutionary perspective on synonymous codon usage in unicellular organisms. 1986, Pubmed
Shimayama, The genetic code of a squid mitochondrial gene. 1990, Pubmed
Shinozaki, The complete nucleotide sequence of the tobacco chloroplast genome: its gene organization and expression. 1986, Pubmed
Shuber, Cloning, expression, and nucleotide sequence of the formate dehydrogenase genes from Methanobacterium formicicum. 1986, Pubmed
Sibler, Codon reading patterns in Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondria based on sequences of mitochondrial tRNAs. 1986, Pubmed
Sibler, Nucleotide sequence of a yeast mitochondrial threonine-tRNA able to decode the C-U-N leucine codons. 1981, Pubmed
Smith, Nucleotide sequence of nine protein-coding genes and 22 tRNAs in the mitochondrial DNA of the sea star Pisaster ochraceus. 1990, Pubmed , Echinobase
Stadtman, Some selenium-dependent biochemical processes. 1979, Pubmed
Stadtman, Selenium biochemistry. 1990, Pubmed
Stadtman, Specific occurrence of selenium in enzymes and amino acid tRNAs. 1987, Pubmed
Stadtman, Selenium-dependent enzymes. 1980, Pubmed
Sueoka, CORRELATION BETWEEN BASE COMPOSITION OF DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID AND AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF PROTEIN. 1961, Pubmed
Sueoka, Directional mutation pressure and neutral molecular evolution. 1988, Pubmed
Sukenaga, cDNA sequence coding for human glutathione peroxidase. 1987, Pubmed
Tanaka, Nucleotide sequence of tryptophan tRNA gene in Acholeplasma laidlawii. 1989, Pubmed
Vold, Structure and organization of genes for transfer ribonucleic acid in Bacillus subtilis. 1985, Pubmed
WILKINS, Molecular structure of deoxypentose nucleic acids. 1953, Pubmed
Wada, Codon usage tabulated from the GenBank genetic sequence data. 1990, Pubmed
Waring, The mosaic organization of the apocytochrome b gene of Aspergillus nidulans revealed by DNA sequencing. 1981, Pubmed
Warrick, Codon preference in Dictyostelium discoideum. 1988, Pubmed
Weber, Reasons for the occurrence of the twenty coded protein amino acids. 1981, Pubmed
Weber, A potato mitochondrial isoleucine tRNA is coded for by a mitochondrial gene possessing a methionine anticodon. 1990, Pubmed
Weiss, Normal yeast tRNA(CAGGln) can suppress amber codons and is encoded by an essential gene. 1986, Pubmed
Williams, Expression of the gene encoded by a family of macronuclear chromosomes generated by alternative DNA processing in Oxytricha fallax. 1991, Pubmed
Woese, On the fundamental nature and evolution of the genetic code. 1966, Pubmed
Wolstenholme, Bizarre tRNAs inferred from DNA sequences of mitochondrial genomes of nematode worms. 1987, Pubmed
Wong, The evolution of a universal genetic code. 1976, Pubmed
Wong, Natural selection versus primitive gene structure as determinant of codon usage. 1986, Pubmed
Yamao, Levels of tRNAs in bacterial cells as affected by amino acid usage in proteins. 1991, Pubmed
Yamao, UGA is read as tryptophan in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1985, Pubmed
Yamao, Evolutionary dynamics of tryptophan tRNAs in Mycoplasma capricolum. 1988, Pubmed
Yokoyama, Molecular mechanism of codon recognition by tRNA species with modified uridine in the first position of the anticodon. 1985, Pubmed
Zinoni, Features of the formate dehydrogenase mRNA necessary for decoding of the UGA codon as selenocysteine. 1990, Pubmed
Zinoni, Nucleotide sequence and expression of the selenocysteine-containing polypeptide of formate dehydrogenase (formate-hydrogen-lyase-linked) from Escherichia coli. 1986, Pubmed
de Bruijn, Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial DNA, a novel organization and genetic code. NULL, Pubmed
van der Feltz, Nucleotide sequence of both reciprocal translocation junction regions in a patient with Ph positive acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, with a breakpoint within the first intron of the BCR gene. 1989, Pubmed