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Mar Drugs
2014 Apr 04;124:2089-113. doi: 10.3390/md12042089.
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Molecular response to toxic diatom-derived aldehydes in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus.
Varrella S
,
Romano G
,
Ianora A
,
Bentley MG
,
Ruocco N
,
Costantini M
.
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Diatoms are dominant photosynthetic organisms in the world''s oceans and represent a major food source for zooplankton and benthic filter-feeders. However, their beneficial role in sustaining marine food webs has been challenged after the discovery that they produce secondary metabolites, such as polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs), which negatively affect the reproductive success of many invertebrates. Here, we report the effects of two common diatom PUAs, heptadienal and octadienal, which have never been tested before at the molecular level, using the sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus, as a model organism. We show that both PUAs are able to induce teratogenesis (i.e., malformations), as already reported for decadienal, the better-studied PUA of this group. Moreover, post-recovery experiments show that embryos can recover after treatment with all three PUAs, indicating that negative effects depend both on PUA concentrations and the exposure time of the embryos to these metabolites. We also identify the time range during which PUAs exert the greatest effect on sea urchin embryogenesis. Finally, we report the expression levels of thirty one genes (having a key role in a broad range of functional responses, such as stress, development, differentiation, skeletogenesis and detoxification processes) in order to identify the common targets affected by PUAs and their correlation with morphological abnormalities. This study opens new perspectives for understanding how marine organisms afford protection from environmental toxicants through an integrated network of genes.
Figure 1. Examples of malformations induced in Paracentrotus lividus plutei at 48 hours post fertilization (hpf) after incubation with the three polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs), heptadienal, octadienal and decadienal (B–H) in comparison with (A), the control; embryos are in sea water without aldehydes.
Figure 3. Percentage of abnormal Paracentrotus lividus plutei (%) produced after exposure to different concentrations of heptadienal, octadienal and decadienal and at different development times after fertilization. The percentages of abnormal plutei without washing are also reported.
Figure 4. The percentage of abnormal Paracentrotus lividus plutei (%) produced after the exposure of newly fertilized eggs to different concentrations of heptadienal, octadienal and decadienal and examined at different developmental stages: 10 min before fertilization (bf), 10 min and 40 min post fertilization (pf) and two, three, five and 8 hpf.
Figure 5. The histograms show the differences in the expression levels of thirty one genes followed by real-time qPCR. Paracentrotus lividus embryos were grown in the presence of decadienal, heptadienal and octadienal at teratogenic concentrations (1.6, 3.0 and 4.5 μM, respectively) and collected at 5 hpf. Data are reported as a fold difference (mean ± SD), compared to the control embryos in sea water without aldehydes. Fold differences greater than ±2 (see the dotted horizontal guide lines at the values of +2 and −2) were considered significant.
Figure 6. The histograms show the differences in the expression levels of thirty one genes followed by real-time qPCR. Paracentrotus lividus embryos were grown in the presence of decadienal, heptadienal and octadienal at teratogenic concentrations (1.6, 3.0 and 4.5 μM, respectively) and collected at 9 hpf. For more details, see also the legend to Figure 5.
Figure 7. The histograms show the differences in the expression levels of thirty one genes followed by real-time qPCR. Paracentrotus lividus embryos were grown in the presence of decadienal, heptadienal and octadienal at teratogenic concentrations (1.6, 3.0 and 4.5 μM, respectively) and collected at 24 hpf. For more details, see also the legend to Figure 5.
Figure 8. The histograms show the differences in the expression levels of thirty one genes followed by real-time qPCR. Paracentrotus lividus embryos were grown in the presence of decadienal, heptadienal and octadienal at teratogenic concentrations (1.6, 3.0 and 4.5 μM, respectively) and collected at 48 hpf. For more details, see also the legend to Figure 5.
Figure 9. Synopsis of the patterns of up- and down-regulation of different classes of genes in the sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus, in the presence of the PUAs decadienal, heptadienal and octadienal.
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